Terpenes are aromatic compounds, built from five-carbon isoprene units, that give plants their smell. Cannabis and hemp contain more than 100, mainly myrcene, limonene, pinene, linalool and caryophyllene. They deter pests and attract pollinators. Claims about their effects in cannabis are mostly unproven. In the hemp Formula Swiss grows in Switzerland, terpenes shape the aroma.
Key facts
- Chemical class
- Hydrocarbons built from isoprene (C5H8) units: monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15) and larger. Forms that contain oxygen are called terpenoids.
- Where they occur
- Almost all plants, especially conifers, citrus, herbs and flowers. In cannabis they form mainly in the resin glands of the flowers.
- Legal status
- Plant terpenes are not controlled substances. Some, such as limonene and linalool, must be named on EU cosmetic labels above set levels.
- In Formula Swiss products
- Our product data does not state terpene contents, so we make no claim about them.
At Formula Swiss we grow several varieties of Cannabis sativa in Switzerland, following organic principles, indoors, outdoors and in greenhouses. The same plant smells noticeably different depending on where it was grown, and that difference comes mostly from terpenes.
Their significance is often overshadowed by cannabinoids such as CBD or THC, yet terpenes contribute greatly to the distinct profiles of hemp varieties, influencing not only aroma but also the overall character of the plant.
In this article, I will explain terpenes, what they are, where they are found and why they are important in hemp cultivation. These small compounds are responsible for the distinctive aromas of plants, including hemp.
Whether it is the citrusy note of limonene or the earthy aroma of myrcene, terpenes offer a sensory fingerprint that distinguishes one plant from another.
Prefer watching over reading? This video covers the key points from the article:
Key takeaways
- Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in many plants, including hemp, responsible for their distinct scents.
- These compounds play a vital role in the plant's natural defence mechanisms against pests and environmental stressors.
- Over 20,000 different terpenes exist in nature, with more than 100 identified specifically in cannabis plants.
- Common terpenes in hemp include myrcene, limonene, pinene, linalool and caryophyllene, each offering unique aromatic profiles.
- Terpene profiles can vary based on cultivation methods, environmental conditions and plant genetics.
- Understanding terpenes is essential for appreciating the complexity and uniqueness of different hemp strains.
The importance of terpenes in cannabis
According to a 2020 review in Molecules (Sommano et al.), terpenes, organic compounds found in many plants, including cannabis, are key contributors to the distinct aromas and sensory profiles of cannabis strains.
However, terpenes serve purposes beyond fragrance alone. Within the plant, they play important roles in defence mechanisms and ecological interactions.
A study published in the Journal of Cannabis Research analysed self-reported experiences and flavour descriptions alongside chemical data for a subset of cannabis varieties. It showed associations, not cause and effect.
Different terpene and cannabinoid profiles are known to shape these experiences in diverse ways, offering a broad spectrum of aromatic and sensory outcomes, from calm and earthy to bright and invigorating.
What exactly are terpenes?
Terpenes are hydrocarbons, organic compounds made up entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Related compounds that contain oxygen are called terpenoids. Linalool, one of the aromatic compounds discussed here, is a terpenoid. Terpenes are produced by many different plants as well as some insects. There are believed to be over 20,000 different types of terpene molecules in nature.
In plants such as cannabis, terpenes serve several functions beyond providing aroma. Some investigators believe that many types of terpene molecules help protect plants from insects or predators by producing an odour that repels them.
The many types of terpenes found in cannabis
Cannabis contains over 100 distinct terpene molecules, each contributing to the unique aroma and scent profile of individual strains.
Terpenes are aromatic compounds naturally present in a wide range of plants, including cannabis. These compounds are responsible for the diverse and recognisable fragrances that differentiate one strain from another. Beyond their role in scent, terpenes also play functional roles within the plant, supporting its natural interactions with the environment.
Here are the ten most important terpenes in cannabis:
| Terpene | Aroma description |
|---|---|
| Myrcene | Recognised as one of the most abundant terpenes in cannabis, myrcene features an earthy, musky scent with subtle hints of cloves. Read more |
| Limonene | True to its name, limonene carries a lively, citrus-like aroma that adds a fresh note to aromatic profiles. Read more |
| Caryophyllene | Distinguished by its bold, spicy and peppery scent, caryophyllene brings warmth to various aromatic blends. Read more |
| Pinene | This terpene has the crisp, fresh aroma of pine needles, often associated with forest-like fragrances. Read more |
| Linalool | Known for its gentle, floral fragrance with soft lavender undertones, linalool contributes a calm scent to aromatic profiles. Read more |
| Humulene | Offering earthy and woody notes with a slightly spicy touch, humulene is often found in hops and complements scent compositions. |
| Terpinolene | A terpene with a multifaceted aroma, blending floral, piney and herbal elements, terpinolene adds complexity and depth to fragrance combinations. |
| Ocimene | Known for its sweet, herbal and slightly woody fragrance, ocimene introduces light, airy notes to aromatic blends. |
| Bisabolol | With a soft floral aroma reminiscent of chamomile, bisabolol lends a delicate touch to fragrance profiles. |
| Eucalyptol | Characterised by its cool, minty scent similar to eucalyptus, eucalyptol provides a crisp, fresh aroma. |
Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in cannabis and many other plants. Some common terpene profiles present in cannabis include myrcene, also found in mango; limonene, also present in lemons; pinene, abundant in pine trees; caryophyllene, found in black pepper; and linalool, noted in lavender, among others.
Each terpene carries its distinct scent and contributes to the overall aromatic character of the plant.
These compounds play a key role in shaping the fragrance and essence of different cannabis varieties. By understanding the terpene composition within a particular variety, individuals can appreciate the unique aromatic profiles that distinguish one type from another.
Terpenes offer a sensory experience that goes beyond scent alone, adding depth to the overall profile of cannabis. This awareness can assist in selecting varieties based on preferred aromatic qualities.
Terpenes: the aromatic compounds in cannabis
Terpenes are organic compounds that are produced by a wide variety of plants, including cannabis. They are responsible for the distinctive smells associated with different strains of cannabis, as well as many other plants. Terpenes play an important role in the plant kingdom by attracting pollinators and repelling predators.
They also help regulate the plant's metabolic processes and protect it from environmental stresses. In cannabis, terpenes are often claimed to work together with cannabinoids, but the evidence is limited (see below).
Evidence on terpene–cannabinoid interactions in people is still thin. A small controlled human study examined d-limonene alongside THC: inhaled d-limonene reduced THC-induced anxiety. It is one small trial.
The role of terpenes in the plant kingdom
In addition to providing aromas and flavours that attract pollinators such as bees or butterflies, terpenes also play an important role in protecting plants from pests and environmental stressors such as heat, UV radiation or drought.
A 2023 review in Molecules (Wiart et al.) found that some terpenes from medicinal plants exhibit significant antibacterial and antifungal properties, helping to prevent infections and infestations.
Terpenes also help regulate the plant's metabolism by acting as precursors to other compounds such as hormones or pigments. They can influence the plant's growth and development, as well as its response to external stimuli such as light or temperature changes.
How terpenes affect the smell, taste and effects of cannabis
Terpenes are key contributors to the distinctive aromas and flavours found in different cannabis strains. These aromatic compounds help define the unique sensory profiles of each variety. Common terpenes in cannabis include:
- Myrcene: Known for its musky, earthy aroma, often associated with herbal or woody notes.
- Limonene: Recognised for its bright, citrusy scent reminiscent of lemons and oranges.
- Pinene: Characterised by a fresh, pine-like fragrance similar to pine needles.
Beyond aroma, researchers are investigating how terpenes interact with other cannabis compounds. Claims that myrcene boosts or prolongs the effects of cannabis are still unproven.
Limonene contributes uplifting citrus notes, while pinene introduces sharp, fresh pine aromas. Together, these terpenes help shape the sensory and experiential qualities of each strain.
Understanding terpene profiles can help individuals appreciate the wide variety of cannabis offerings and select products that align with their personal preferences for scent and overall experience.
The chemical structures of terpenes
Terpenes are organic compounds composed of repeating isoprene units, each containing five carbon atoms. These units can connect in various configurations, leading to a wide array of terpene structures.
How these isoprene units link, whether linear, cyclic or branched, determines the specific characteristics and functions of each terpene molecule.
The structural diversity of terpenes is further influenced by the number of isoprene units they contain. For instance, monoterpenes consist of two isoprene units, while sesquiterpenes have three. This variation affects properties such as molecular weight, boiling point and solubility.
Oxygen-containing groups such as hydroxyl or carbonyl groups distinguish terpenoids from hydrocarbon terpenes and can influence their reactivity and interactions with other biological molecules.
Understanding the chemical structure of terpenes is important for various applications, including pharmacology, aromatherapy and agriculture. The specific arrangement of atoms within a terpene molecule influences its scent and effects. By studying these structures, scientists can develop targeted uses for terpenes in different industries.
How terpenes influence the effects of cannabis
Terpenes contribute significantly to the aroma profile of cannabis. Beyond their sensory qualities, terpenes interact with other plant compounds, such as cannabinoids, influencing the overall character of each variety.
A 2021 study by LaVigne and colleagues in Scientific Reports investigated selected compounds in cell-based experiments and mice, including combinations with a synthetic cannabinoid-receptor agonist. The results support further research but do not show effects from ordinary cannabis products in people.
Appreciating the presence and balance of terpenes within cannabis varieties can offer insight into the diverse aromatic and experiential qualities available. Exploring a range of terpene profiles allows individuals to identify the combinations that best align with their preferences for aroma and overall sensory appeal.
The entourage effect
The entourage effect describes the interaction between various compounds within cannabis, combining to shape the overall sensory and experiential qualities of the plant.
When it comes to terpenes, their presence can influence how cannabinoids such as THC and CBD interact within the plant's overall composition. For instance, myrcene, a prevalent terpene in cannabis, is thought to contribute to the distinctive character of certain varieties when present alongside cannabinoids.
This interplay between terpenes and cannabinoids forms a complex network of interactions, contributing to the unique attributes expressed by different cannabis profiles.
Limonene, a common terpene with a citrus-like aroma, can influence the overall profile of cannabis when combined with compounds such as THC. The entourage effect refers to how cannabinoids and terpenes interact, shaping the distinct characteristics of different cannabis varieties, especially when both THC and CBD are present together.
The evidence is weaker than the marketing suggests. In receptor tests, myrcene, α- and β-pinene, β-caryophyllene and limonene did not activate CB1 or CB2 or change the activity of THC or CBD there, apart from a possible weak effect of β-caryophyllene at CB2 (Finlay et al., 2020). Reviews describe most terpene claims as still needing validation (Booth and Bohlmann, 2019; Hanuš and Hod, 2020).
What is the entourage effect in cannabis?
Why strain names are an unreliable guide
Myrcene, limonene and pinene are among the terpenes most often measured at the highest levels in cannabis flower (Booth and Bohlmann, 2019). Strain names, however, say little: genetic studies show that products sold under the same name often differ in chemistry (Watts et al., 2021). Only a lab analysis of the specific batch shows its terpene profile.
Terpenes and ongoing research
Scientific studies continue to explore the properties of various terpenes found in plants, including cannabis. These aromatic compounds are of interest for their potential roles in contributing to the plant’s overall profile and interactions with other compounds.
For example, beta-caryophyllene, known for its spicy, pepper-like aroma, has been studied for its interactions with receptors in the body.
Limonene, recognised for its citrusy fragrance, has also attracted attention in scientific studies focused on its interaction with biological systems. Preliminary research, including animal studies, has examined its potential influence on cellular activity, though further investigation is ongoing.
As scientific interest in terpenes grows, these compounds continue to be studied for their diverse properties and their contributions to plant-based products. Future research may provide greater insight into their potential roles across various applications.
Frequently asked questions
What are terpenes?
Terpenes are natural aromatic compounds found in many plants, including cannabis, responsible for their distinctive scents.
Where are terpenes commonly found besides cannabis?
Terpenes are abundant in various plants such as citrus fruits, pine trees, lavender, rosemary and herbs like basil and thyme.
How do terpenes contribute to the aroma of cannabis?
Terpenes shape the unique scent profiles of different cannabis varieties, from citrusy and fruity to earthy, woody or spicy tones.
Are terpenes used outside of cannabis products?
Yes, terpenes are widely used in the fragrance industry, cleaning products, perfumes and essential oils due to their aromatic qualities.
How are terpenes extracted from plants?
Terpenes can be extracted through various methods such as steam distillation, cold pressing or solvent extraction, depending on the plant source and intended use.
Do terpenes degrade over time?
Yes, terpenes are sensitive to light, heat and oxygen. Over time, exposure to these elements can cause them to degrade, reducing their aromatic intensity.
Are synthetic terpenes available?
Yes, synthetic terpenes are produced in laboratories and are commonly used in fragrances, flavourings and cleaning products. However, many prefer naturally derived terpenes for their authenticity.
What is the difference between terpenes and cannabinoids?
Terpenes are aromatic compounds responsible for scent and flavour, while cannabinoids are chemical compounds found in cannabis that interact with the body's systems. Both are present in cannabis but serve different roles.
Can terpenes be blended for custom aromas?
Yes, terpenes can be combined to create custom aromatic profiles, which is a common practice in perfumery, aromatherapy and cannabis product development.
Are terpenes safe on skin?
Most terpenes are used safely in cosmetics, but some, such as limonene and linalool, can cause allergic reactions once they oxidise in air. EU cosmetics must list them on the label above set limits.
What is the entourage effect in cannabis?
This article is for information only and does not describe any product in our shop. Formula Swiss oils are cosmetics for external use. See our full disclaimer.
Last reviewed:
Sources
- Sommano SR et al. (2020). The Cannabis Terpenes. Molecules. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33302574/
- de la Fuente A et al. (2020). Relationship among subjective responses, flavor, and chemical composition across more than 800 commercial cannabis varieties. Journal of Cannabis Research. jcannabisresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42238-
- Spindle TR et al. (2024). Vaporized D-limonene selectively mitigates the acute anxiogenic effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy adults who intermittently use cannabis. Drug Alcohol Depend. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38498958/
- Wiart C et al. (2023). Antibacterial and Antifungal Terpenes from the Medicinal Angiosperms of Asia and the Pacific: Haystacks and Gold Needles. Molecules. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10180233/
- LaVigne JE et al. (2021). Cannabis sativa terpenes are cannabimimetic and selectively enhance cannabinoid activity. Scientific Reports. www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-87740-8
- Finlay DB et al. (2020). Terpenoids From Cannabis Do Not Mediate an Entourage Effect by Acting at Cannabinoid Receptors. Front Pharmacol. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32269529/
- Booth JK et al. (2019). Terpenes in Cannabis sativa - From plant genome to humans. Plant Sci. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31084880/
- Hanuš LO et al. (2020). Terpenes/Terpenoids in Cannabis: Are They Important?. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34676339/
- Watts S et al. (2021). Cannabis labelling is associated with genetic variation in terpene synthase genes. Nature Plants. www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-01003-y
