What is cannabis?

The cannabis plant has been part of human history for thousands of years. Over time, it has been used in various ways, including in ritual contexts, for recreational purposes and for practical applications. Its history is long and complex, spanning cultures and generations.

According to the journal Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, cannabis likely originated in Central Asia, more specifically the north-eastern Tibetan Plateau. From there, the plant spread in both directions, eventually reaching South Asia. Its adaptability, versatility and resilience in different climates contributed to this widespread distribution.

The plant contains over 480 different compounds. One of the best known is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which has psychoactive properties. Another is cannabidiol (CBD), which has received considerable attention in recent years. These and other cannabinoids interact with the body's endocannabinoid system, which is involved in various internal processes.

After over a decade of intensive work with CBD and hemp, I have witnessed how public perception of cannabis has shifted. More people are showing interest in understanding the plant beyond headlines and stereotypes.

For a long time, cannabis was stigmatised and subject to strict legal restrictions, primarily due to its psychoactive effects. This image has not completely disappeared, but the perception is changing. Ongoing research and a deeper understanding of the plant's complex structure are leading to a more balanced view of its place in modern society.

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Key takeaways

• Cannabis is a plant with a long history of use across various cultures, from spiritual to recreational purposes.
• It contains numerous compounds, including cannabinoids such as THC and CBD, which interact with the human endocannabinoid system.
• Names commonly encountered in cannabis discussions include Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis, but taxonomic treatments differ and these names do not reliably predict a cultivar’s traits.
• Cannabis is an annual plant and is commonly dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants. Some cultivars are monoecious, bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant.
• Despite historical controversy, perceptions of cannabis are evolving towards a broader understanding of its diverse applications.

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The cannabis plant

Cannabis taxonomy is debated. Names used in different classifications include Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis. Many botanical treatments recognise one variable species, while others distinguish additional species or subspecies. Cultivation labels should not be treated as a complete botanical classification.

Cannabis sativa

Cannabis sativa is the species name used in many botanical treatments for both hemp and drug-type cannabis. The informal sativa label often describes tall plants with narrow leaflets, but does not establish climate suitability or flowering time. Hemp cultivars are selected for particular fibre, seed or flower uses.

What is Cannabis sativa?

Cannabis indica

Cannabis indica is recognised separately in some taxonomic treatments. In cultivation, the indica label often describes compact plants with broad leaflets. These descriptions do not establish a cultivar’s flowering duration, cold tolerance or suitability for a particular growing space; those characteristics require cultivar-specific information.

Cannabis ruderalis

Cannabis ruderalis is a name associated with small, often early-flowering plants in some classifications. Day-neutral or autoflowering plants can flower without the short-day response required by many other cultivars; this trait also occurs in bred cultivars and is not restricted to plants sold under the ruderalis name.

Breeders can select for this flowering behaviour, but its timing still depends on the cultivar and growing conditions.

Hybrid varieties

Through selective crossbreeding, hybrids have been developed that combine traits from sativa, indica and ruderalis plants. These hybrids can be tailored to specific growing conditions, structural features or cannabinoid profiles, for example, for use in topical products or industrial applications.

Chemical components of cannabis

The cannabis plant contains a wide range of naturally occurring compounds, including cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids. The most widely known and studied cannabinoids are THC and CBD.

THC, or tetrahydrocannabinol, is the primary psychoactive element of the plant. It interacts with specific receptors in the body, particularly the CB1 receptor, which is associated with various neurological and biological processes.

CBD, or cannabidiol, is another well-known cannabinoid. Unlike THC, it is non-intoxicating, although it can affect the brain. Ongoing research into CBD continues to explore potential applications and interactions with other plant compounds.

In addition to cannabinoids, cannabis also contains terpenes, aromatic compounds that shape the plant’s distinctive scent profile. Terpenes are believed to influence the overall experience with the plant.

A frequently discussed concept in scientific circles is the so-called “entourage effect”, which considers the interplay between cannabinoids and terpenes and how they may influence one another.

What are terpenes?

The endocannabinoid system

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a natural part of the human body and plays a role in regulating and responding to various internal and external influences. It consists of endocannabinoids, specific receptors, primarily CB1 and CB2, as well as enzymes that produce and break down these compounds.

The ECS is thought to be involved in a wide range of biological processes, including the sleep-wake cycle, mood, appetite signalling, memory functions and aspects of reproduction. Scientists continue to research its mechanisms across different domains.

Ongoing studies aim to clarify how these interactions function and what they may reveal about the ECS as a whole.

The endocannabinoid system

Cannabis cultivation

Research into the endocannabinoid system (ECS) has increased significantly in recent years. Studies are examining its role in numerous physiological processes. Despite growing scientific interest, many aspects of its exact function in the human body remain the subject of ongoing investigation.

The cultivation of cannabis follows a structured process requiring a solid understanding of the plant’s growth cycle and environmental needs.

Typically, cultivation involves several stages: germination, where the seeds begin to sprout; the vegetative phase, marked by vigorous leaf and stem growth; the flowering phase, during which the characteristic flower structures develop; and finally the harvest, where mature plants are collected at the right time depending on their intended use.

Lighting, temperature, humidity and nutrient management depend on growth stage, cultivar, production system and intended crop. The table summarises these distinctions rather than prescribing a single schedule for all cannabis plants.

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Germination

Germination is the first stage in the development of a cannabis plant. During this phase, a viable seed begins to sprout and develop into a seedling. Timing varies with the seed lot, dormancy and test conditions; the appearance of an early root is not the same as completed seedling establishment.

During this time, seeds are usually placed in a warm, moist environment to encourage sprouting. Some growers use specially designed germination kits, while others prefer a simple method using damp paper towels in a consistently warm location.

Once germinated, seeds should be handled carefully to avoid damaging the delicate primary root. Planting depth and handling should suit the seedling and chosen substrate. A depth of about half an inch is one example used in cultivation, rather than a universal requirement for every seedling and growing medium.

Vegetative phase

The vegetative phase is characterised by vigorous structural growth. The plant focuses on developing stems, leaves and branches necessary for subsequent stages. The duration of this phase can vary from several weeks to months, depending on growing conditions and genetics.

Light exposure and nutrient supply support vegetative growth, but the appropriate conditions depend on cultivar and production system. Day length influences flowering responses in photoperiod-sensitive plants, while light intensity is a separate variable. Nutrient inputs, including nitrogen, should reflect the crop’s requirements and the existing nutrient supply rather than a universal high-input formula.

Flowering phase

During the flowering phase, the cannabis plant develops flower clusters. Many cultivars respond to shorter days, and a 12-hour light period followed by 12 hours of darkness is a common indoor practice. However, flowering responses vary among cultivars, and day-neutral or autoflowering plants do not require that particular light-cycle change.

Nutrient demand changes as the plant develops, but flowering does not establish a universal need for more phosphorus and potassium or less nitrogen. A controlled study of a high-CBD cultivar found that increasing phosphorus within its tested range did not improve flower yield or cannabinoid concentration. Inputs therefore need to reflect crop requirements and soil or growing-medium information, rather than an automatic increase at flowering.

Flower development continues towards the relevant harvest stage, but the interval depends on cultivar, environment and intended product. Comparisons should specify whether time is measured from sowing, flowering initiation or another starting point. Broad sativa, indica or hybrid labels do not establish a reliable average flowering duration.

Harvest

Harvest timing depends on the intended material: flower, seed and fibre crops are not necessarily collected at the same stage. For flower crops, maturity and cannabinoid composition change during development, so visual observations and chemical measurements answer different questions. Harvest decisions also need to account for processor requirements and applicable testing obligations.

A magnifying glass can help growers observe the resin glands, or trichomes, on flowers, including changes from clear to opaque or amber. However, trichomes do not all mature together, and colour alone does not establish cannabinoid concentration or an ideal harvest date. NC State Extension discusses combining these observations with testing for CBD hemp.

After harvest, flowers intended for a dried product require managed moisture removal and suitable storage. Hanging is one drying method, but airflow, humidity and the condition of the material affect the outcome. Drying and curing can alter aroma and quality; they do not guarantee that mould will be absent. Dried material can take up moisture again if storage conditions are unsuitable.

Indoor and outdoor cannabis cultivation

Cannabis can be grown either indoors or outdoors. Each method offers specific advantages and requires different approaches.

Indoor cultivation

Indoor cultivation gives growers ways to manage environmental conditions, including light cycles, temperature, humidity and nutrient supply. Effective control depends on the equipment, monitoring and operating conditions; an indoor setting does not guarantee complete control. These tools can help growers adapt the environment to the needs of a particular crop.

However, setting up an indoor facility often requires a larger initial investment. Key components include artificial lighting systems, air filtration, ventilation units and environmental control devices. Ongoing operational costs, especially electricity, can also be significant.

Outdoor cultivation

Outdoor cultivation is generally more cost-effective to implement. By relying on sunlight and natural environmental conditions, it is possible to grow large, robust plants.

The open environment offers ample space for root expansion and vertical growth. However, it also presents risks such as unpredictable weather, pest infestations or plant diseases. Successful outdoor cultivation depends on a good understanding of local climate conditions and proper timing.

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Challenges and solutions in cannabis cultivation

Successful cannabis cultivation requires ongoing attention to plant development and timely action to address any emerging problems. Regardless of the method used, whether indoor, greenhouse or outdoor, maintaining optimal growing conditions is key to achieving high-quality results.

Nutrient management

A frequent challenge in cultivation involves nutrient imbalances. Cannabis plants rely on precise ratios of macro- and micronutrients, and either deficiencies or excesses can hinder development.

Symptoms such as discoloured leaves, slowed growth or poor flower formation often indicate nutritional issues. Regular testing of soil or growth medium, combined with appropriate adjustments to feeding schedules, can help maintain nutrient stability.

Pest and disease control

Growers also contend with pests and pathogens. Common threats include insects, fungal infections and bacterial contamination. In indoor environments, sanitation, air circulation and environmental monitoring can significantly reduce the risk.

In outdoor settings, preventative methods can form part of pest management. Any product considered for use needs to be suitable for the crop and problem and permitted under the applicable local rules and product instructions. Organic certification alone does not establish that a pest-control product is authorised for a particular cannabis crop.

Resource awareness

Cultivation requires a solid understanding of plant biology, climate control and input management. Access to reliable information and the appropriate tools can significantly improve results. While challenges are inevitable, they can be addressed effectively with observation, preparation and informed techniques.

Personal perspective

In my years of working within the CBD and hemp industry, I have found cannabidiol (CBD) to be one of the most compelling aspects of the cannabis plant. Its complex structure, non-intoxicating nature and broad potential for application have positioned it at the centre of both scientific research and industry conversations.

From seed selection to extraction, each stage of production reveals something new about the compound's versatility and how its quality can vary depending on agricultural and processing standards.

Having managed and observed numerous cultivation and extraction operations, I have come to appreciate the importance of precision and consistency when working with CBD.

Variations in plant genetics, soil quality and extraction methods can significantly affect the profile and concentration of cannabinoids present. This level of detail and control is essential in maintaining a reliable product and advancing the understanding of CBD’s role within the broader cannabis context.

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